Navigating the Complexities of Globalization and Re-imagining IR as Emblematic of a Globalized World
I. Introduction
The world we experience today was unimaginable some decades ago. From trade to travel, governance, deterrence and even conflict, everything has changed. If the WW-II were to happen in today’s hyper globalized world, it would be a very different story. Hitler's Blitzkrieg would likely be supplanted by cyber warfare. Tank deployment in enemy terrain would no longer be required, rendering ‘General Winter’[1] ineffective in saving the Soviet Union. For the war campaigning, pamphlets and newspapers would be replaced by tweets and reels to disseminate information (or misinformation), and sway public opinion. Non-state actors would probably play a role in escalation of conflict beyond borders. However, considering the positives, the modern complex web of alliances based on bilateral economic dependency and international supply chains might just prevent the conflict from even reaching the point of being called a ‘World War’. Nuclear weapons would also be more difficult to deploy, due to existing international institutions, frameworks, efficient diplomatic channels, and possibility of severe economic sanctions.
Clearly, globalization attributed by increased interconnectedness, economic integration, cultural exchange, and political interdependence in facing translational challenges, has made the world a better and perhaps a safer place. Yet, globalization comes with its own set of unique challenges. If trade can prevent war, it can also escalate competition into a race for global hegemony and economic power, which can then pave way for more conflict. For instance, Pakistan recently received a military package from the US for ‘maintenance of its fleet’. However, India criticized this deal speculating that it will become the target of those weapons and vessels, which happened in the war of 1971 as well[2]. The benefits of globalization are apparent in global supply chains which have multiplied exponentially compared to the original silk route. The risks, however, are also evident. For instance, the risks associated with espionage have substantially increased from the era of Enigma decoding to apps causing alarming data leaks[3]. Therefore, there is little hesitation in claiming that globalization can, very well be a double-edged sword most recently seen through the fast spread of COVID-19 across borders.
To examine these aspects in more detail, this paper will explore the characteristics and attributes of globalization followed by an in-depth analysis of the transnational challenge of pandemics, which exemplifies globalization. Finally, in assessing the evolution of international relations due to globalization, this paper will provide solutions for pandemics, emblematic of the modern globalized world.
II. Defining Globalization
As the conundrum of ‘to trade or invade; to compete or collaborate?’[4] became apparent in foreign policies of states, the debates on globalization also gained traction amongst scholars. Various scholars from different perspectives have attempted to define globalization, a concept that has continued to evolve over decades.
In his famous book ‘The World is Flat’, Thomas Friedman highlights how globalization has leveled the playing field by creating more opportunities for economic growth[5]. Anthony Giddens in his work, ‘Runaway World’ also emphasizes on these aspects of global citizenship and cultural exchange[6]. Focusing on the information flow and connectivity, Manuel Castells, in his trilogy, ‘Information Age’, explores how globalization has resulted in increased connectedness and the emergence of networked societies as a result of information and communication technology[7]. Held also tows a similar line and denotes globalization as the link between different parts of the world, from social to criminal, from economic to environmental issues and how these evolve and develop over time. Held takes a more nuanced view and also highlights a crucial aspect of globalization: “distant events have deep impacts…and local developments can have global consequences”[8]. This perhaps sums up the COVID-19 pandemic in the most eloquent manner. The outbreak, originating in Wuhan, had a massive social, political, and economic impact all over the world.
On the other end of this debate, are authors who have expressed hesitations and concerns about globalization. These include Joseph Stiglitz who criticizes globalization for worsening the economic inequalities, arguing that it disproportionately benefits the wealthy and exploits the poor[9]. Vandana Shiva also vehemently supports this school of thought, claiming that globalization has led to significant environmental degradation as natural resources continue to be exploited for economic gains[10].
Drawing from the works of these imminent authors, it is possible to formulate a working definition of globalization:
Globalization is a complex and dynamic concept, characterized by widespread networks of global connectivity, convergence, and interdependence of communities, cultures, economies, and technological advances. It has several positive aspects such as a greater potential for economic expansion, cross-cultural interactions, and improved communication tools. However, globalization has also been (rightly) accused of widening global economic inequalities and reinforcing the satellite-metropole theory, diluting diversity in favor of cultural homogeneity, and causing serious degradation of the environment. Therefore, an in-depth understanding of globalization requires the acknowledgement of its dual nature, recognizing both the advantages and challenges that come with it. To reap the benefits of globalization while mitigating its adverse effects and ensuring inclusivity and sustainability, frameworks of international governance and cooperation must match the complexity of transnational challenges that stare at them.
The following section explores the key attributes of globalization in detail:
1. Increased Interconnectedness and Awareness: Globalization cultivates powerful connections between countries, enabled by technological innovations. The advent of the new media, and the resulting rapid communication has dramatically reduced the barriers of space and time. Information travels faster than ever before and there is a shared sense of concerns for challenges like pandemics, terrorism, and climate change, transcending national boundaries.
2. Global Economic Integration: Over time, global economy has become closely interconnected, with unfettered cross-border movement of commodities, services, and wealth. Trade accords, multinational companies like Apple and Infosys having offices and global supply networks across the world are examples of international mutual economic dependency.
3. Technological Advancement: The pervasiveness of social media platforms such as Facebook and X (formerly Twitter) illustrates technical improvements that have enhanced connectivity. These platforms enable quick spread of information across lands and influence global narratives. A great example of this is the formation of public opinion on geo-politics. Americans have strong opinions about President Xi and most Australians also have something to say about Kim Jong Un.
4. Cultural Exchange: The interchange of cultural ideas, beliefs, and practices have also greatly been possible due to globalization. Movies, music, and fashion are examples of cultural commodities that circulate internationally, contributing to a common global culture. The worldwide following of Korean dramas and Bollywood music as well as McDonalds, Tim Hortons, and Starbucks successfully running businesses in all parts of the world are all examples of this.
5. Political Interdependence: In confronting global concerns such as climate change, terrorism, and pandemics, nations have benefitted from collaboration and cooperation. There is a global recognition that these challenges necessitate coordinated efforts and solutions. At the peak of COVID-19 outbreak, the casualties would have been much more if countries refused to pool resources for vaccine development, distribution, and financial recovery. This collaboration was made possible by globalization and emphasizes the need for continued political interdependence in the face of transnational challenges.
According to Held, globalization has been going on for centuries. As industrialization peaked, the advancements in transportation and trade contributed to growing linkages between people, economies, and culture. What we see today is a much evolved version of those initial linkages, ‘different both in scale and nature’. Held asserts that this evolution does not signify the end of the nation-states or the death of politics. Rather, it highlights that politics can no longer be focused simply on nation-states and the essential problem of our (global) age is to rethink our ideals, institutions, and identities to allow for politics to remain a successful tool to fulfill our goals and requirements[11].
To accommodate developments associated with globalization, the transition from traditional concepts of international relations (IR) to contemporary IR is defined by a shift from a state-centric perspective to a view that embraces greater connectivity and healthy interdependence on a global scale. Historically, international relations have been dominated by the actions and relationships of nation-states. States were regarded as the principal players, and diplomatic ties and disputes were examined in light of individual nations' priorities. The modern landscape acknowledges a more connected world in which global challenges transcend national boundaries. The spread of infectious illnesses such as COVID-19, for example, highlights the importance of coordinating worldwide responses, as the health and well-being of persons in one country are inextricably related to conditions in other countries. Similarly, economic relationships were frequently looked at through the prism of national economies, with an emphasis on domestic policies regarding trade and bilateral agreements between individual governments. Global economic integration is an integral component of contemporary IR. Global supply chains, such as Apple's purchasing of components from numerous countries and setting up offshore manufacturing units, demonstrate how economic activities are now intertwined across boundaries, making individual nations economically contingent of each other. Diplomatic relations were also largely bilateral, with dialogue and agreements taking place between two states. The primary emphasis was on preserving each nations' sovereignty. The collaborative response to global crises demonstrates political interdependence. The U.N. General Assembly’s Emergency Special Session held recently, to call for ceasefire towards ‘immediate’, ‘durable’ and ‘sustainable truce’ in Gaza is a good example of this. 121 countries backed this resolution, 45 abstained including India and 14 countries, led by US voted against it[12]. The logic behind these voting patterns can be understood by analyzing the undercurrents in bilateral and multilateral relations of these countries with Israel, Iran, and other Middle Eastern nations.
III. llustrating Globalization Through Pandemics: A Tale of Transnational Challenges
Prior to World War I, translational challenges would not have piqued the interests of researchers and political scientists. As economies developed, countries quickly became ever more interconnected, and before we could fully comprehend the perks and perils of these new linkages and networks, the "world became a family."[13] It is natural that when a member of the family develops a flu, it is expected for the rest of the family to start feeling sick as well, especially those with particularly weakened immune systems. This explains the global nature of transnational challenges today wherein the members with weak immune systems are nations with weak economies and institutions and are undergoing civil unrest or political instability. The international community as a whole received the benefits of globalization (albeit a few countries benefited more than others). Similarly, the world must now confront the same kinds of risks as a result of globalization.
2020 was perhaps the most chaotic and tragic year that the world has witnessed in modern times. Towards the end of 2019, the COVID-19 outbreak was reported in Wuhan, China for the first time. The issue got US attention in January with CDC alerting the nation of an outbreak in China. Many people in America and the world at this point, would have gone about their day after briefly sympathizing for China, failing to gauge the threats that come with a hyper-connected world. By end of January however, the concern became more apparent. 283 lab confirmed cases of COVID-19 were reported in China, Thailand, Japan, Republic of Korea, and US[14] quickly followed by Australia, India and many other countries joining the suffering. What unraveled thereafter is etched in world history. US and China are 7,233 miles apart and China and Australia are 4,641 miles apart. Yet, it only took a few days for the virus to reach both these countries.
The outbreak of COVID-19 showed the degree to which the modern world is vulnerable to transmissible diseases. In a pre-globalized society, the rapid, stealth spread and the sheer scale of damage were unfathomable. As the mutations of the virus became stronger, the worldwide healthcare system became overburdened, and millions perished as a result of a lack of basic amenities like as access to treatment. The world seemed to be nearing its end.
Based on an examination of the global transmission of COVID-19, the following contribute to pandemics exemplifying globalization[15]:
a) Interconnectedness and Rapid Transmission: There is not much speculation about why the COVID-19 spread so quickly across the world. The spread of a pandemic in modern times is proportionate to the ease of travel. When the initial wave of COVID struck, worldwide movement was at a record high. The ethical quandaries and diplomatic difficulties involved with border closures are difficult to tackle and so the decisions of lockdowns were taken with extreme precaution.
b) Economic Impact: In today's world, the global supply chain is extremely linked, and disruptions in one area of the chain can have far-reaching implications in other parts of the world. Pandemics disrupt global supply chains, global economies, and global healthcare systems, impacting both developed and developing nations. This was evident when the COVID-19 virus interrupted international supply chains, disrupting the manufacture and delivery of critical medical supplies and vaccinations around the world. This economic link underscores the magnitude of the threat.
c) Overburdened Healthcare Systems: Pandemics' global nature can seriously strain healthcare systems not just at the origin, but globally. Mass migrations and displacements can often be seen as individuals seek medical facilities and safety. The day before the WHO proclaimed COVID-19 a pandemic (March 10, 2020) and February 2022, 122,823 movement restrictions were imposed globally. However, 208 nations approved 961 exceptions to these restrictions allowing travel[16]. In India, the mass migration of labor from urban to rural areas during COVID-19, caused massive interruptions to lockdowns, and reduced efficiency of already underfunded government hospitals.
d) A Balance of Competition & Collaboration: One of the biggest lessons that came out of COVID-19 was the importance of global cooperation for disaster preparedness, response, and need for development of efficient health channels to ensure smooth movement of medical supplies and other relief goods. This may need competing economies or neighbors fighting over territories to pause and cooperate with each other to contain pandemic threats. Pakistan became a commendable example of this spirit during COVID-19. As India suffered from record number of deaths and shortage of oxygen cylinders, a Pakistani charity offered to send aid to India and the Kashmir issue went cold as both nations fought the pandemic[17].
e) Security Concerns: Given the magnitude of the destruction that viruses are capable of causing and the ease with which they may spread, the potential of viruses being employed as bio-weapons in modern warfare does not appear implausible.
f) Vulnerability of Developing Nations: The way immune-compromised members of a family catch the flu first, ill-prepared, vulnerable nations may be the worst hit. Due to inadequate healthcare resources and facilities, developing countries may face more substantial obstacles in containing pandemics. The influence on these nations can have having lasting consequences on the domestic economy as well as worldwide ramifications, such as the continued spread of infectious diseases. The healthcare conditions in Sub-Saharan countries like Nigeria exemplified this during COVID-19.
g) Political and Social Implications: Pandemic responses frequently entail governmental decisions and societal initiatives. Because the efficacy of these interventions’ hinges on international collaboration, pandemics are essentially transnational.
IV. A Globalized Solution for Pandemics
During 1890s and 1950s, the immigrants who arrived at Ellis Island Migration Center in New York harbor, went through a rigorous medical examination by the ‘Six Second Specialists[18]’.
A passenger arriving on Ellis Island is inspected by a doctor to determine if he’s healthy and free of transmissible diseases; photograph by author from a visit to Ellis Island in 2023
Failing the medical examination on shore often meant separation from families and being shipped back to their homeland in terrible conditions[19]. A lot has changed due to globalization. Even during a serious global health emergency such as COVID-19, countries like Sweden refused to impose border lockdowns[20] in favor of a ‘balanced approach’. The immigration policies in US have also seen a shift from the days of Ellis Island. There are now visas for family re-unification and medical tourism. A woman arriving in US through New York Harbor or Angel’s Island in San Francisco to join her husband had to prove that she will not become a ‘public expense liability’[21]. Now the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) provides H-4 visas with employment authorization for spouses of non-resident aliens. While coughing and sneezing in the immigration hall may draw some unfriendly looks from fellow passengers reaching for their masks, it is certainly not going to lead to deportation. People found COVID positive on airports across the world were sent to quarantine areas equipped with all basic needs (including coffee!). One reason why states treat immigrants differently in modern times is the regard for multilateral relations and diplomatic ties, whether or not there is an outbreak. If even one video of harassment or a racial remark/discrimination goes viral on social media, the state’s highest offices are expected to respond, which can determine the image of that individual state on a global level.
In the pre-globalization era, if an outbreak occurred, the IR approach was more state focused, and less emphasis was given to international cooperation or a global image. This was justifiable by the far less amount of global migration and lack of considerations of international dependency on FDI and skilled human resources at the time. In a globalized world however, when airports are always bustling, skilled migration is a constant and sometimes even promoted, pandemics can rapidly cross borders. The solution is to create and enhance a comprehensive global health governance system. This strategy involves global collaboration, unified efforts, and resource pooling to effectively stop, detect, respond, and adapt to pandemics. Here's why and how this solution is emblematic of a globalized world:
a. Early Detection and Real-time Monitoring
The development of early detection systems and continual monitoring of transmissible diseases are given prominence in global health governance. Global cooperation enables real-time sharing of data, expertise, and surveillance tools, allowing for the early detection of possible diseases before they become global catastrophes.
b. International Collaboration and Strengthening Information Sharing
Given the intertwined nature of global health, a coordinated response to pandemics is essential. A global health governance framework would make it easier for individual states, international organizations, and public-private partnerships to collaborate, assuring an organized efficient response to pandemics. Developing/improving worldwide intelligence-sharing mechanisms can also aid in the early detection and monitoring of terrorist operations and disease outbreaks. Additionally, developing communication tools to enable efficient relay of information by governments during such emergencies can help in containing the situation to a great extent.
c. Mobilization of Resources
The need for resources for research, development, and implementation of preventative and curative measures is substantial during global health emergencies such as a pandemic. A globalized strategy allows for easy pooling of financial and technical resources from various countries and organizations, guaranteeing adequate access to all.
d. Standardization of Protocols
Uniform procedures and regulations are essential for systematic and effective mitigation of a pandemic. Standardized processes for data exchange, testing, treatment, and immunization may be established by global health governance, allowing a stronger, more coherent response to pandemics
e. Capacity Building in Developing Nations
Due to poor healthcare infrastructure, developing countries frequently encounter difficulties in handling health crises. For example, in 2012, the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States supplied insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) to combat malaria in Haiti[22]. An observational study a few years later revealed no indication of malaria decrease attributable to these 'aid-imported' ITNs[23]. This was largely because the demand was way larger than the number of nets which could be reasonably imported. Instead of handing a pre-packaged bed-net, the demand for ITNs in Haiti could have been turned into an excellent opportunity to provide vocational and STEM skills to locals. A whole industry could have been built around locally manufactured ITNs. In that case, even if the strategy of bed-net aids remained unsuccessful at the time, the local community would still be equipped with the skills and knowledge to deal with similar scenarios in the future. Global health governance can prioritize such capacity-building initiatives by providing skill development support to healthcare systems and awareness campaigns in local communities of vulnerable regions, ultimately enhancing global pandemic resilience.
f. Cross-Sectoral Collaboration
It is common knowledge that pandemics negatively affect the health sector. However, this influence also extends to global economies, concerns of internal security, and society as a whole. Therefore, to meet cross-sectoral challenges, a global response is required to coordinate partnership not just among medical agencies but also in other sectors, including economic, military, and social institutions.
g. Global Education and Awareness Drives
Containing disease transmission during pandemics such as COVID-19 requires public awareness of mitigation measures. In the absence of this, the best of strategies can fail on ground. Global health governance channels can enable global public health education initiatives by utilizing communication channels to guarantee the adherence to standard protocols, help spread crucial information and also stop the spread of misinformation.
h. Promoting International Legal Frameworks:
There is a need to create comprehensive international legal frameworks for an efficient international response to pandemics. These can include bilateral legal aid, terms for mandatory ceasefire in conflicted territories during public health emergencies and exchange of skilled human resource.
i. Establishing Joint Pandemic Response Units[24]:
To increase cooperation between security and health institutions, joint response teams can be formed between nation states. These can include medical experts and other advocacy and communication trained professionals. To ensure preparedness. they can conduct regular drills like joint military exercises undertaken by friendly nations and during global health crises such as COVID-19, these units can aid countries with emergency response and recovery operations.
V. Conclusion
The widespread misunderstanding of globalization and resulting miscalculations in polices can be largely attributed to wrongly assuming globalization as a one dimensional, static concept. Jeffrey Sachs, a famous economist, and modernization theorist, known for his ‘Shock Therapy’ got limited success in Africa precisely because of this one-dimensional view of globalization. He overlooked African historical contexts as well as frequently oversimplifying obstacles in disease eradication and healthcare measures[25]. He did not give culture sufficient importance in developmental work. This impeded his initiatives from yielding a lasting positive impact, such as addressing issues in the healthcare system as a whole. Similarly, his economic liberalization policies exposed the unprepared and underdeveloped domestic market to exploitation[26].
The definition of globalization presented in this paper emphasizes the dual nature of globalization. Considering the lessons learnt from failed reforms in several underdeveloped countries and COVID-19, it is now imperative to recognize that the definition, strategies, and practices of globalization require re-thinking. Developing nations which have historically been colonized and have struggled to restart their economies and set-up efficient healthcare systems are the most vulnerable during crises such as COVID-19. India is a good example of this. An otherwise strong, emerging economy witnessed absolute social chaos and misinformation spread during COVID. While globalization has promoted tourism in many places like Maldives, a pandemic meant a shut-down of all tourism and related industries. This naturally caused economic crisis in the region. Similarly, for export-dependent economies, the pandemic brought economic stress as the demand for goods reduced globally. Thankfully, globalization also means that there exists a solution to these issues. These countries could benefit from the debt relief and aid programs. The oil-dependent countries like Saudi Arabia that suffered losses as oil prices declined during COVID-19, could benefit from efforts at stabilization at the international level through Organization of Petroleum Producing Countries (OPEC) and BRICS.
In summary, globalization has been around for a while and the alter-globalization trend is soon to follow if modern IR does not recognize the challenges that come with a globalized world and work to overcome these in a globalized manner.
[1] Chew, Allen F. (December 1981). "Fighting the Russians in Winter: Three Case Studies". Leavenworth Papers. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College (5). Retrieved from: https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/combat-studies-institute/csi-books/chew.pdf
In his study of winter warfare in Russia, Allen F. Chew concluded that "General Winter" was a 'substantial contributing factor' the military failures of both Napoleon's invasion of the Russian Empire and Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union.
[2] Al Jazeera, (2022, September 22). US defends arms sales to Pakistan following criticism from India. URL: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/27/us-defends-arms-sales-to-pakistan-amid-criticism-from-india
[3] Chiang, S. (2023, May 16). ‘Temu accused of data risks after sister app was suspended for malware’. CNBC. URL: https://www.cnbc.com/2023/05/17/temu-accused-of-data-risks-amid-tiktok-pinduoduo-fears.html
[4] Yasin, S. (2023). ‘Will Their Past Become their Future? A Speculative Study of the Indo-Chinese Conflict from 1962-2023’. Independent Study with Dr. Wright. California State University Long Beach
[5] Friedman, T. L. (2005). The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century. Farrar, Straus and Giroux
[6] Giddens, A. (1999). Runaway World: How Globalization is Reshaping Our Lives. Routledge.
[7] Castells, M. (2000). "The Rise of the Network Society." In The Rise of the Network Society: The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture (Vol. 1). Wiley-Blackwell.
[8] Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D., & Perraton, J. (1999). Globalization. Global Governance, 5(4), 484. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27800244
[9] Stiglitz, J. E. (2002). Globalization and Its Discontents. W.W. Norton & Company.
[10] Shiva, V. (2005). Earth Democracy: Justice, Sustainability, and Peace. South End Press.
[11] Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D., & Perraton, J. (1999). Globalization. Global Governance, 5(4), 484. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27800244
[12] NDTV. (2023). ‘Explained: Why India Did Not Vote On UN Resolution Seeking Gaza Ceasefire’. URL: https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/israel-hamas-war-why-india-did-not-vote-on-un-resolution-seeking-immediate-truce-in-israel-hamas-war-4521983
[13] Reference to G-20 Summit 2023, held in India. The slogan for this conference was from Sanskrit: “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” meaning “The World is One Family”.
[14] CDC Museum COVID-19 Timeline retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/museum/timeline/covid19.html
[15] Some aspects of this sections such as economic impact, rapid transmission, overburdened healthcare systems and international competition vs collaboration are based on my answer in major comp examination fall 2023. Since these were crucial aspects for this paper, it was not possible to leave them out and therefore the repetition. However, these points have not been copy-pasted and have been expanded on for this paper.
[16] Migration Data Portal. (2023) Migration data relevant for the COVID-19 pandemic. URL: https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/migration-data-relevant-covid-19-pandemic
[17] Hashim, A. (2021). ‘Pakistani charity offers medical aid to India amid COVID crises. Al Jazeera. URL: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/23/pakistani-charity-offers-medical-aid-to-india-amid-covid-crisis
[18] The Museum of Immigration at Ellis Island has a section that describes how medical examiners at Ellis Island processed a huge number of people each day, spending roughly 6 seconds on each to determine if the person was free to enter America or needed further examination.
[19] Cunningham, J.T. (2023). Ellis Island: Immigration's Shining Center. Arcadia Publishing
[20] Davies, G. and Roeber, B. (2021, February 28). ‘Sweden has avoided a COVID-19 lockdown so far: Has its strategy worked?’. ABC news. URL: https://abcnews.go.com/International/sweden-avoided-covid-19-lockdown-strategy-worked/story?id=76047258
[21] Ellis Island Museum’s section on ‘Peopling of America’
[22] Dr. Haas in 615 Seminar, Fall 2022
[23] Steinhardt et al (2016) ‘Effectiveness of insecticide-treated bed nets in malaria prevention in Haiti: a case-control study’, The Lancet doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30238-8
[24] The last two points of this sections (promoting legal framework and establishing joint pandemic response units) were also part of my answer in the major comp examination fall 2023. There are my original ideas and I believe were crucial for this paper as well, therefore the repetition. However, these points have not been copy-pasted and have been expanded on for this paper.
[25] Munk, N. (2013). The Idealist: Jeffrey Sachs and the Quest to End Poverty. New York. Anchor Books. Pg 52
[26] Munk, N. (2013). The Idealist: Jeffrey Sachs and the Quest to End Poverty. New York. Anchor Books. Pg 121-157
